Although the study below has been published a few years ago, I'm referencing it now as a result of re-reading Chapter 16 of Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching translated by Witter Bynner*:
Be utterly humble
And you shall hold to the foundation of peace,
Be at one with all those living things which, having arisen and flourished,
Return to the quiet whence they came,
Like a healthy growth of vegetation
Falling back upon the root,
Acceptance of this return to the root has been called 'quietism,'
Acceptance of quietism has been condemned as 'fatalism,'
But fatalism is acceptance of destiny
And to accept destiny is to face life with open eyes,
Whereas not to accept destiny is to face death blindfolded,
He who is open-eyed is open-minded,
He who is open-minded is open-hearted,
He who is open-hearted is kingly,
He who is kingly is godly,
He who is godly is useful,
He who is useful is infinite,
He who is infinite is immune,
He who is immune is immortal.
*A gift to me from Brian Simpson in 1994
Mystical experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin lead to increases in the personality domain of openness. (PDF)
MacLean KA, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR.
J Psychopharmacol. 2011 Nov;25(11):1453-61. Epub 2011 Sep 28.
PMID: 21956378
Abstract
A large body of evidence, including longitudinal analyses of personality change, suggests that core personality traits are predominantly stable after age 30. To our knowledge, no study has demonstrated changes in personality in healthy adults after an experimentally manipulated discrete event. Intriguingly, double-blind controlled studies have shown that the classic hallucinogen psilocybin occasions personally and spiritually significant mystical experiences that predict long-term changes in behaviors, attitudes and values. In the present report we assessed the effect of psilocybin on changes in the five broad domains of personality - Neuroticism, Extroversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Consistent with participant claims of hallucinogen-occasioned increases in aesthetic appreciation, imagination, and creativity, we found significant increases in Openness following a high-dose psilocybin session. In participants who had mystical experiences during their psilocybin session, Openness remained significantly higher than baseline more than 1 year after the session. The findings suggest a specific role for psilocybin and mystical-type experiences in adult personality change.
Cited by (Google Scholar)
Tuesday, March 10, 2015
The psychedelic state induced by ayahuasca modulates the activity and connectivity of the default mode network.
The use of Ayahuasca for treating PTSD has been deservingly placed into public awareness thanks to Lisa Ling's episode "Jungle Fix" of This is Life. The "Jungle Fix" follows a group of veterans, and others, to a remote location in the Peruvian jungles to take Ayahuasca as a treatment for PTSD due to having received no effective treatment from traditional medicine in the States. Their results appear to be positive but you must ask why do those suffering from PTSD have to go through such extreme measures for effective treatment.
The psychedelic state induced by ayahuasca modulates the activity and connectivity of the default mode network.
Palhano-Fontes F, Andrade KC, Tofoli LF, Santos AC, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, Ribeiro S, de Araujo DB. PLoS One. 2015 Feb 18;10(2):e0118143.
PMID: 25693169
PDF
Cited by (Google Scholar)
From abstract:
Ayahuasca caused a significant decrease in activity through most parts of the default mode network, including its most consistent hubs: the Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)/Precuneus and the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC). Functional connectivity within the PCC/Precuneus decreased after Ayahuasca intake.
As with psilocybin, the effect of ayahuasca on the brain appears to be by decreasing activity in the default mode nework. However, there are differences mentioned in this article:
Long-term use of psychedelic drugs Is associated with differences in brain structure and personality in humans
Bouso JC, Palhano-Fontes F, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Ribeiro S, Sanches R, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, de Araujo DB, Riba J.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015 Apr;25(4):483-92.
PMID: 25637267
Cited by (Google Scholar)
From Abstract:
Ayahuasca users showed significant CT differences in midline structures of the brain, with thinning in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), a key node of the default mode network. CT values in the PCC were inversely correlated with the intensity and duration of prior use of ayahuasca and with scores on self-transcendence, a personality trait measuring religiousness, transpersonal feelings and spirituality. Although direct causation cannot be established, these data suggest that regular use of psychedelic drugs could potentially lead to structural changes in brain areas supporting attentional processes, self-referential thought, and internal mentation. These changes could underlie the previously reported personality changes in long-term users and highlight the involvement of the PCC in the effects of psychedelics.
For those unfamiliar with the structural similarities between psilocybin, ayahuasca (active ingredient DMT or N,N-Dimethytryptamine) and serotonin a diagram is posted below:
Note: psilocybin is quickly metabolized into psilocin in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction.
The new study below demonstrates the antidepressant effect of ayahuasca. Given the structural similarities and activity on the 5-HT2a receptors it shares with psilocybin, psilocybin may very well function effectively as an antidepressant as well.
Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression: A SPECT Study.
Ayahuasca is an Amazonian botanical hallucinogenic brew which contains dimethyltryptamine, a 5-HT2A receptor agonist, and harmine, a monoamine-oxidase A inhibitor. Our group recently reported that ayahuasca administration was associated with fast-acting antidepressive effects in 6 depressive patients. The objective of the present work was to assess the antidepressive potentials of ayahuasca in a bigger sample and to investigate its effects on regional cerebral blood flow. In an open-label trial conducted in an inpatient psychiatric unit, 17 patients with recurrent depression received an oral dose of ayahuasca (2.2 mL/kg) and were evaluated with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, the Young Mania Rating Scale, and the Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale during acute ayahuasca effects and 1, 7, 14, and 21 days after drug intake. Blood perfusion was assessed eight hours after drug administration by means of single photon emission tomography. Ayahuasca administration was associated with increased psychoactivity (Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale) and significant score decreases in depression-related scales (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) from 80 minutes to day 21. Increased blood perfusion in the left nucleus accumbens, right insula and left subgenual area, brain regions implicated in the regulation of mood and emotions, were observed after ayahuasca intake. Ayahuasca was well tolerated. Vomiting was the only adverse effect recorded, being reported by 47% of the volunteers. Our results suggest that ayahuasca may have fast-acting and sustained antidepressive properties. These results should be replicated in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials.
Sanches RF, de Lima Osório F, Dos Santos RG, Macedo LR, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, de Araujo DB, Riba J, S Crippa JA, Hallak JE.
J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015 Dec 8. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 26650973
Yet another study has been published highlighting the antidepressant properties of ayahuasca:
Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression: A SPECT Study.
Ayahuasca is an Amazonian botanical hallucinogenic brew which contains dimethyltryptamine, a 5-HT2A receptor agonist, and harmine, a monoamine-oxidase A inhibitor. Our group recently reported that ayahuasca administration was associated with fast-acting antidepressive effects in 6 depressive patients. The objective of the present work was to assess the antidepressive potentials of ayahuasca in a bigger sample and to investigate its effects on regional cerebral blood flow. In an open-label trial conducted in an inpatient psychiatric unit, 17 patients with recurrent depression received an oral dose of ayahuasca (2.2 mL/kg) and were evaluated with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, the Young Mania Rating Scale, and the Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale during acute ayahuasca effects and 1, 7, 14, and 21 days after drug intake. Blood perfusion was assessed eight hours after drug administration by means of single photon emission tomography. Ayahuasca administration was associated with increased psychoactivity (Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale) and significant score decreases in depression-related scales (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) from 80 minutes to day 21. Increased blood perfusion in the left nucleus accumbens, right insula and left subgenual area, brain regions implicated in the regulation of mood and emotions, were observed after ayahuasca intake. Ayahuasca was well tolerated. Vomiting was the only adverse effect recorded, being reported by 47% of the volunteers. Our results suggest that ayahuasca may have fast-acting and sustained antidepressive properties. These results should be replicated in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials.
Sanches RF, de Lima Osório F, Dos Santos RG, Macedo LR, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, de Araujo DB, Riba J, Crippa JA, Hallak JE.
J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016 Feb;36(1):77-81. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000436.
PMID: 26650973
Cited by (Google Scholar)
The psychedelic state induced by ayahuasca modulates the activity and connectivity of the default mode network.
Palhano-Fontes F, Andrade KC, Tofoli LF, Santos AC, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, Ribeiro S, de Araujo DB. PLoS One. 2015 Feb 18;10(2):e0118143.
PMID: 25693169
Cited by (Google Scholar)
From abstract:
Ayahuasca caused a significant decrease in activity through most parts of the default mode network, including its most consistent hubs: the Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)/Precuneus and the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC). Functional connectivity within the PCC/Precuneus decreased after Ayahuasca intake.
As with psilocybin, the effect of ayahuasca on the brain appears to be by decreasing activity in the default mode nework. However, there are differences mentioned in this article:
- Although overall similar to the changes observed for psilocybin, the changes induced by Ayahuasca did not find a significant reduced coupling between PCC and mPFC, as observed after psilocybin intake [16]. Again, although Ayahuasca and psilocybin have much in common, the uniqueness of the experience brought by each substance should be remarked. The Ayahuasca experience usually involves much stronger somatic and sedation effects. From the neuropharmacology perspective, psilocybin acts almost exclusively on the serotonergic system, while Ayahuasca is linked to a rich combination of neurochemical mechanisms: DMT is a trace amine with affinities to sigma-1, monoaminergic, and trace amine-associated receptors [5,8,49,50]. Furthermore, Ayahuasca contains inhibitors of mono-amino-oxidases, which prevents the degradation of monoamine neurotransmitters and thus increase their levels.
Long-term use of psychedelic drugs Is associated with differences in brain structure and personality in humans
Bouso JC, Palhano-Fontes F, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Ribeiro S, Sanches R, Crippa JA, Hallak JE, de Araujo DB, Riba J.
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015 Apr;25(4):483-92.
PMID: 25637267
Cited by (Google Scholar)
From Abstract:
Ayahuasca users showed significant CT differences in midline structures of the brain, with thinning in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), a key node of the default mode network. CT values in the PCC were inversely correlated with the intensity and duration of prior use of ayahuasca and with scores on self-transcendence, a personality trait measuring religiousness, transpersonal feelings and spirituality. Although direct causation cannot be established, these data suggest that regular use of psychedelic drugs could potentially lead to structural changes in brain areas supporting attentional processes, self-referential thought, and internal mentation. These changes could underlie the previously reported personality changes in long-term users and highlight the involvement of the PCC in the effects of psychedelics.
For those unfamiliar with the structural similarities between psilocybin, ayahuasca (active ingredient DMT or N,N-Dimethytryptamine) and serotonin a diagram is posted below:
Note: psilocybin is quickly metabolized into psilocin in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction.
The new study below demonstrates the antidepressant effect of ayahuasca. Given the structural similarities and activity on the 5-HT2a receptors it shares with psilocybin, psilocybin may very well function effectively as an antidepressant as well.
Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression: A SPECT Study.
Ayahuasca is an Amazonian botanical hallucinogenic brew which contains dimethyltryptamine, a 5-HT2A receptor agonist, and harmine, a monoamine-oxidase A inhibitor. Our group recently reported that ayahuasca administration was associated with fast-acting antidepressive effects in 6 depressive patients. The objective of the present work was to assess the antidepressive potentials of ayahuasca in a bigger sample and to investigate its effects on regional cerebral blood flow. In an open-label trial conducted in an inpatient psychiatric unit, 17 patients with recurrent depression received an oral dose of ayahuasca (2.2 mL/kg) and were evaluated with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, the Young Mania Rating Scale, and the Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale during acute ayahuasca effects and 1, 7, 14, and 21 days after drug intake. Blood perfusion was assessed eight hours after drug administration by means of single photon emission tomography. Ayahuasca administration was associated with increased psychoactivity (Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale) and significant score decreases in depression-related scales (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) from 80 minutes to day 21. Increased blood perfusion in the left nucleus accumbens, right insula and left subgenual area, brain regions implicated in the regulation of mood and emotions, were observed after ayahuasca intake. Ayahuasca was well tolerated. Vomiting was the only adverse effect recorded, being reported by 47% of the volunteers. Our results suggest that ayahuasca may have fast-acting and sustained antidepressive properties. These results should be replicated in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials.
Sanches RF, de Lima Osório F, Dos Santos RG, Macedo LR, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, de Araujo DB, Riba J, S Crippa JA, Hallak JE.
J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015 Dec 8. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 26650973
Yet another study has been published highlighting the antidepressant properties of ayahuasca:
Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression: A SPECT Study.
Ayahuasca is an Amazonian botanical hallucinogenic brew which contains dimethyltryptamine, a 5-HT2A receptor agonist, and harmine, a monoamine-oxidase A inhibitor. Our group recently reported that ayahuasca administration was associated with fast-acting antidepressive effects in 6 depressive patients. The objective of the present work was to assess the antidepressive potentials of ayahuasca in a bigger sample and to investigate its effects on regional cerebral blood flow. In an open-label trial conducted in an inpatient psychiatric unit, 17 patients with recurrent depression received an oral dose of ayahuasca (2.2 mL/kg) and were evaluated with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, the Young Mania Rating Scale, and the Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale during acute ayahuasca effects and 1, 7, 14, and 21 days after drug intake. Blood perfusion was assessed eight hours after drug administration by means of single photon emission tomography. Ayahuasca administration was associated with increased psychoactivity (Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale) and significant score decreases in depression-related scales (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) from 80 minutes to day 21. Increased blood perfusion in the left nucleus accumbens, right insula and left subgenual area, brain regions implicated in the regulation of mood and emotions, were observed after ayahuasca intake. Ayahuasca was well tolerated. Vomiting was the only adverse effect recorded, being reported by 47% of the volunteers. Our results suggest that ayahuasca may have fast-acting and sustained antidepressive properties. These results should be replicated in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials.
Sanches RF, de Lima Osório F, Dos Santos RG, Macedo LR, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Wichert-Ana L, de Araujo DB, Riba J, Crippa JA, Hallak JE.
J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016 Feb;36(1):77-81. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000436.
PMID: 26650973
Cited by (Google Scholar)
Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study
Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study.
Johansen PØ, Krebs TS.
J Psychopharmacol. 2015 Mar;29(3):270-9. Epub 2015 Mar 5.
PMID: 25744618 (PDF)
Cited by (Google Scholar)
This new article from the Journal of Psychopharmacology (5 March 2015) has the following points of interest beginning with the abstract:
Abstract
A recent large population study of 130,000 adults in the United States failed to find evidence for a link between psychedelic use (lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin or mescaline) and mental health problems. Using a new data set consisting of 135,095 randomly selected United States adults, including 19,299 psychedelic users, we examine the associations between psychedelic use and mental health. After adjusting for sociodemographics, other drug use and childhood depression, we found no significant associations between lifetime use of psychedelics and increased likelihood of past year serious psychological distress, mental health treatment, suicidal thoughts, suicidal plans and suicide attempt, depression and anxiety. We failed to find evidence that psychedelic use is an independent risk factor for mental health problems. Psychedelics are not known to harm the brain or other body organs or to cause addiction or compulsive use; serious adverse events involving psychedelics are extremely rare. Overall, it is difficult to see how prohibition of psychedelics can be justified as a public health measure.
A similar 2013 study published in PLoS One by the same authors found the 'associations between psilocybin use and lower likelihood of past year serious psychological distress, inpatient mental health treatment and psychiatric medication prescription were statistically significant both in this study (aOR 0.9, p = 0.007; aOR 0.7, p = 0.0004; aOR 0.8, p = 0.002, respectively) and in our previous study (aOR 0.8, p = 0.009; aOR 0.8, p = 0.04; aOR 0.8, p = 0.00008, respectively)' (Krebs and Johansen, 2013b (PDF)).
The studies authors have been quoted as saying “Concerns have been raised that the ban on use of psychedelics is a violation of the human rights to belief and spiritual practice, full development of the personality, and free-time and play” (National Monitor March 8, 2015).
It is deeply troubling to read an interview with John Ehrlichman,
advisor to US President Richard Nixon, in which he explains that
the War on Drugs was not to protect the American public but was ‘really about’ hurting ‘the antiwar Left,
and black people’, and openly admits, ‘Did we know we were
lying about the drugs? Of course we did’ (Baum, 2012).
Finally, below is a chart showing the Active/Lethal Dose Ratio and Dependence Potential of Psychoactive Drugs. Data source is Gable, R. S. (2006). Acute toxicity of drugs versus regulatory status. In J. M. Fish (Ed.), Drugs and Society: U.S. Public Policy, pp.149-162, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Notice how psilocybin appears as the least harmful on this graph, much less than tobacco or alcohol which are not illegal and are seen in advertisements across the United States. It has been know for some time that psilocybin is less toxic than caffeine. Currently psilocybin is classified as a Schedule 1 drug (high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision) while more harmful substances get off with a less restrictive Schedule or none at all. Incidentally, psilocybin is showing promise in the treatment of PTSD, suicidal behavior, addictions, depression, anxiety, OCD, and existential distress in cancer patients.
Johansen PØ, Krebs TS.
J Psychopharmacol. 2015 Mar;29(3):270-9. Epub 2015 Mar 5.
PMID: 25744618 (PDF)
Cited by (Google Scholar)
This new article from the Journal of Psychopharmacology (5 March 2015) has the following points of interest beginning with the abstract:
Abstract
A recent large population study of 130,000 adults in the United States failed to find evidence for a link between psychedelic use (lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin or mescaline) and mental health problems. Using a new data set consisting of 135,095 randomly selected United States adults, including 19,299 psychedelic users, we examine the associations between psychedelic use and mental health. After adjusting for sociodemographics, other drug use and childhood depression, we found no significant associations between lifetime use of psychedelics and increased likelihood of past year serious psychological distress, mental health treatment, suicidal thoughts, suicidal plans and suicide attempt, depression and anxiety. We failed to find evidence that psychedelic use is an independent risk factor for mental health problems. Psychedelics are not known to harm the brain or other body organs or to cause addiction or compulsive use; serious adverse events involving psychedelics are extremely rare. Overall, it is difficult to see how prohibition of psychedelics can be justified as a public health measure.
A similar 2013 study published in PLoS One by the same authors found the 'associations between psilocybin use and lower likelihood of past year serious psychological distress, inpatient mental health treatment and psychiatric medication prescription were statistically significant both in this study (aOR 0.9, p = 0.007; aOR 0.7, p = 0.0004; aOR 0.8, p = 0.002, respectively) and in our previous study (aOR 0.8, p = 0.009; aOR 0.8, p = 0.04; aOR 0.8, p = 0.00008, respectively)' (Krebs and Johansen, 2013b (PDF)).
The studies authors have been quoted as saying “Concerns have been raised that the ban on use of psychedelics is a violation of the human rights to belief and spiritual practice, full development of the personality, and free-time and play” (National Monitor March 8, 2015).
Finally, below is a chart showing the Active/Lethal Dose Ratio and Dependence Potential of Psychoactive Drugs. Data source is Gable, R. S. (2006). Acute toxicity of drugs versus regulatory status. In J. M. Fish (Ed.), Drugs and Society: U.S. Public Policy, pp.149-162, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Notice how psilocybin appears as the least harmful on this graph, much less than tobacco or alcohol which are not illegal and are seen in advertisements across the United States. It has been know for some time that psilocybin is less toxic than caffeine. Currently psilocybin is classified as a Schedule 1 drug (high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision) while more harmful substances get off with a less restrictive Schedule or none at all. Incidentally, psilocybin is showing promise in the treatment of PTSD, suicidal behavior, addictions, depression, anxiety, OCD, and existential distress in cancer patients.
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